Home | Volume 49 | Article number 85

Research

Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon

Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon

Njeodo Njongang Vigny1,2,&, Binwie Fanuella Shu3

 

1Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon, 2Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Institut Universitaire de La Côte, Douala, Cameroon, 3Department of Medical Laboratory Science, School of Medical and Biomedical Sciences, Maflekumen Higher Institute of Health Sciences Tiko, Tiko, Cameroon

 

 

&Corresponding author
Njeodo Njongang Vigny, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon

 

 

Abstract

Introduction: in low- and middle-income countries, hospital surfaces contaminated with bacteria, namely beds and door handles in hospital wards, are a major source of nosocomial infections. We sought to evaluate bacterial isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards and ascertain their antibiotic susceptibility patterns in Tiko Health District (THD), Cameroon.

 

Methods: using a multistage sampling technique, this hospital-based cross-sectional study included 40 beds and 20 door handles in THD. Gram staining methods, biochemical reactions, and features of bacterial colonies were used to identify bacterial isolates. A frequency table and bar charts were used to display the data.

 

Results: Bacillus spp., Clostridium perfringens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Clostridium spp., and Staphylococcus aureus were identified. Patient beds were mainly contaminated with S. aureus (42.5%, 17/40). However, C. perfringens (35%, 7/20) was the most common isolate from door handles. S. aureus was resistant to bacitracin (100%, 21/21) but sensitive to gentamycin (95.2%, 20/21) and azithromycin (95.2%, 20/21). While C. perfringes was resistant to bacitracin (100%, 8/8), it was sensitive to gentamycin (75%, 6/8) and chloramphenicol (75%, 6/8).

 

Conclusion: beds and door handle harbour largely S. aureus and C. perfringes, respectively. High sensitivity to gentamycin and resistance to bacitracin were observed in S. aureus and C. perfringes, respectively. Good and regular hand hygiene and the cleaning and disinfecting of door knobs and hospital beds should be practiced. Hospitals should fully adopt food safety protocols to prevent or control food poisoning effectively.

 

 

Introduction    Down

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), also known as nosocomial infections, are illnesses that occur 48 hours following a hospital visit or during hospitalization [1]. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites are linked to HAIs. In addition, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Clostridium difficile are the primary bacterial agents. Aspergillus and candida are also related to HAIs, while rotavirus, hepatitis B and C viruses, and influenza virus are viruses that cause HAIs [2,3]. A diverse range of microorganisms can be found in hospital environments, with a few pathogenic bacterial strains frequently colonizing regularly touched areas s such as door knobs, beds, bed rails, trays, and tables among others [4]. According to research done in Douala, Garoua, and Dschang, surgical site infection is the most common of the HAIs, which also include respiratory, gastrointestinal, bloodstream, and urinary tract infections. In addition, the surgical ward had a higher prevalence of skin and soft tissue site infections than urinary and bedsore infections [5,6]. Because of patients' irrational and excessive use of antibiotics, bacteria that cause HAIs most frequently have become resistant to them [7].

According to a meta-analysis, the prevalence of HAIs is 0.14% globally and is increasing by 0.06% a year [8]. According to the same study, E. coli had the highest infection rate among patients when compared to Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS), Staphylococcus spp., and P. aeruginosa. Additionally, the global prevalence of HAIs was higher in men than in women [8]. The Americas and the West Pacific had the lowest rates of HAIs, while Africa had the greatest rate [8]. Furthermore, the prevalence of HAIs in Africa (12.76%) is more than twice as high as that seen in developed nations [9]. Based on positive culture results for HAIs in records from the microbiology unit, gram-negative bacteria (K. pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Citrobacter) were the most prevalent microorganisms in this region and accounted for 40%-100% of infections [9].

Research carried out in Nepal, Morocco, Ghana, Algeria, and the south, southwest, and northwest Ethiopia has revealed S. aureus to be the most common bacterial pathogen found on hospital ward door handles [10-16]. Other bacterial isolates have also been discovered in several of these investigations, including P. aeruginosa, Enterobacter, CoNS, Staphylococcus saprophticus, Klebsiella spp., and Acinetobacter baumannii [11,13,14,16]. On hospital ward beds, S. aureus and CoNS have frequently been found [13-16]. Conversely, there have not been many reports of Acinetobacter, K. rhnioscleromates, Enterobacter, and E. coli [14,16,17]. The most effective antibiotics against S. aureus, according to recent data from Southern Ethiopia, Nepal, Morocco, and Ghana, are ampicillin, gentamycin, levofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin, in that order [10-12,16].

At the University Teaching Hospital in Yaoundé, Cameroon, the cumulative incidence rate (19.21%) and death rate (28%) of HAIs are high [1]. Furthermore, 44.7% (25/85) of the hospital's wards had the greatest rate of bacterial contamination [18]. Data on microorganisms found on hospital wards' beds and door handles, as well as their patterns of antibiotic susceptibility, are scarce in Cameroon. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate bacterial isolates from beds and door handles in hospital wards and determine their antibiotic susceptibility patterns in the Tiko health district of Cameroon.

 

 

Methods Up    Down

Study duration, setting, and sampling technique: this was a cross-sectional study that was conducted in Tiko Health District, for over six months, from November 2021 to April 2022, precisely at Regina Pacis Hospital, Private Medical Insurance (PMI) Hospital, COMWEL Clinic, and Tiko District Hospital. These four health facilities belong to the peripheral level in the structure of the health system in Cameroon. The Tiko Health District is one of the 18 health districts in the Southwest Region of Cameroon. The majority of the people who visit these hospitals are farmers and plantation workers [19]. The health district is found in the south-west region of Cameroon and has about 334,647 inhabitants distributed in eight health areas with a total surface area of 4840 km2 [20]. It has mean daily temperatures ranging from 28 to 33°C, which accounts for the dry nature of the study site [21]. It also has three urban settlements, namely Tiko, Likomba, and Mutengene, along with the following boundaries: Buea Health District (North), Bonaberi Health District (South), Dibombari Health District (East), and Limbe Health District (West), characterized by activities such as trading, farming, and fishing [20]. Maflekumen Teaching Laboratory is a site reserved for daily practicals on campus at the Maflekumen Higher Institute of Health Sciences. It has microscopes, an incubator, and a staining section with several cupboards in which stains, petri dishes, and slides are stored.

A total of 20 door handles and 40 beds were selected in the Tiko health district of Cameroon using a multistage sampling technique. In the first stage, four health areas were randomly selected from the 8 health areas (Mutengene, Holforth, Kange, Tiko Town, Likomba, Misselele, Mondoni, and Mudeka) in the Tiko Health District. These selected health areas were Likomba, Tiko Town, Mutengene, and Holforth. In the next stage, a list of health facilities was compiled for each health area. The distribution of health facilities in the health areas was: Tiko town (COMWEL clinic), Holforth (PMI hospital), Mutengene (Baptist hospital, Atlantic hospital, Regina Pacis, and Centralized Medical hospital), and Likomba (Central clinic, Cottage hospital, Tiko district hospital, and Sone clinic). In stage 3, a hospital was randomly selected from each of the four health areas, resulting in the following facilities: Regina Pacis Hospital, PMI Hospital, COMWEL Clinic, and Tiko District Hospital. Five-door handles and 10 beds were randomly selected from every hospital in the final stage.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria: beds and door handles of wards in Regina Pacis Hospital, PMI Hospital, COMWEL Clinic, and Tiko District Hospital were included. Nonetheless, beds and door handles outside the wards were excluded.

Sample collection and processing

Sample collection: the surfaces of 40 beds and 20 door handles in the hospital wards were swabbed using sterile swab sticks moistened with 0.9% w/v physiologic saline. The samples (15 each from four hospitals) were collected using swab sticks, which were immediately put back in their sterile plastic tubes after collection. Face masks, gloves, and laboratory coats were worn to ensure the sterility of the samples. The tubes were finally transported in zip-lock polythene bags within 20-30 minutes to the Maflekumen Teaching Laboratory for processing.

Sample processing

Sample culture: the swabbed samples were inoculated on CLED agar, blood agar, and MacConkey agar. Each agar was prepared by weighing it in powder form using an electronic balance and dissolving it in a measurable amount of distilled water, following the manufacturer´s instructions. During the preparation of the culture media, quality control was maintained by autoclaving the culture media to ensure sterility. It was later incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24 hours. Culture plates were inspected to identify visible bacteria colonies. Presumptive identifications of bacteria were done based on colony characteristics and Gram reactions. Confirmatory tests were done based on the enzymatic and biochemical reactions of the organisms using various reagents and enzymes. The pH of the enzymes and biochemical reagents was tested using pH papers to ensure quality control. They include the Catalase test (exclusively used to identify S. aureus and Bacillus spp.), the Nagler reaction (biochemical test for C. perfringens), the analytical profile index (biochemical test for Enterobacteria spp.), and the Indole test (commonly used to detect enterobacteria).

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing: antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed for each bacterial isolate on nutrient agar using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion technique. Furthermore, three to five selected colonies of a pure culture of bacteria were transferred to a tube containing 5 ml of sterile normal saline and mixed gently to form a homogenous suspension until the turbidity of the suspension was adjusted to 0.5 McFarland [22]. A sterile cotton swab was used to remove the excess suspension by rotating the swab against the surface of the tube. The swab was then used to distribute the bacteria evenly over the surface of the nutrient agar. The inoculated plates were left at room temperature to dry for 3-5 minutes, and a set of antibiotic discs was placed on the inoculated plates using sterile forceps. The plates were allowed to stand for 30 minutes and later incubated at 35°C for 16 to 18 hours. Moreover, the observed zones of inhibition around the antibiotic discs were compared with the standard zones of inhibition for each bacterial isolate. If an observed zone was equal to or greater than the standard zone, the bacterial isolate was considered sensitive to a specific antibiotic. However, a bacterial isolate was described as resistant if otherwise. Each diameter of the observed zone of inhibition for a specific disc was measured using a ruler in centimeters [22].

Data analysis: data were entered into Microsoft Excel and exported into SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 22 for analysis. Qualitative data were presented on bar charts, while quantitative data were summarized and presented in a table.

Ethical approval statement: an approval letter to conduct this study was obtained from Maflekumen Higher Institute of Health Sciences Tiko. In addition, administrative authorizations were obtained from the district medical officer in Tiko and a director from each of the four hospitals.

 

 

Results Up    Down

Frequencies of bacterial isolates from beds and door handles of wards in Tiko Health District: the Tiko health district's hospital wards' beds and door knobs were found to harbour S. aureus, C. perfringens, K. pneumoniae, Clostridium spp., and Bacillus spp. Figure 1 illustrates that of the 60 bacterial isolates (found on hospital beds and door knobs in the Tiko Health District), the most common species were Bacillus spp. 15 (25%) and Staphylococcus aureus 21 (35%).

Frequencies of bacterial isolates from hospital wards by beds and door handles: compared to other bacterial isolates, S. aureus (42.5%, 17/40) and Bacillus spp. (27.5%, 11/40) were identified from ward beds more frequently. But the most frequent bacterial isolate from ward door handles was C. perfringens (35%, 7/20) (Figure 2).

Frequencies of bacterial isolates from beds and door handles of wards by hospital: Regina Pacis Hospital had a 53.3% prevalence of S. aureus on beds and door handles (8/15) and the COMWEL clinic had a similar prevalence (53.3%, 8/15). However, as Figure 3 illustrates, Bacillus spp. was isolated in Tiko District Hospital the most frequently (53.3%, 8/15).

Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringes, Bacillus species, and Klebsiella pneumoniae: S. aureus (a total of 21 isolates) were sensitive to gentamycin 20 (95.2%), azithromycin 20 (95.2%), ampicillin 9 (42.9%), and chloramphenicol 8 (38.1%). Additionally, as indicated in Table 1, Bacillus spp. (a total of 15 isolates) exhibited susceptibility to gentamycin 13 (86.7%) and chloramphenicol 4 (26.7%). Table 1 displays multidrug resistance in S. aureus against bacitracin 21 (100%), and tetracycline 12 (57.1%), while Bacillus spp. displayed multidrug resistance against bacitracin 15 (100%), cephalothin 10 (66.7%), and tetracycline 1 (6.6%).

 

 

Discussion Up    Down

We assessed bacterial isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District and determined their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. The following isolates: S. aureus, C. perfringens, K. pneumoniae, Clostridium spp., and Bacillus spp. was found in the Tiko health district. Our finding showed that S. aureus 35% (21/60) and Bacillus spp. 25% (15/60) were the most dominant bacterial pathogens on beds and door handles of hospital wards. S. aureus (42.5%, 17/40) was the predominant contaminant on beds. On the contrary, C. perfringens (35% (7/20) was the most frequent bacterial isolate from door handles. In addition, S. aureus (n = 21) was most sensitive to gentamycin 20 (95.2%) and azithromycin 20 (95.2%), followed by ampicillin 9 (42.9%) and chloramphenicol 8 (38.1%). In contrast, the sensitivity rates of C. perfringes (n = 8) were 6 (75%) for gentamycin, 6 (75%) for chloramphenicol, and 4 (50%) for azithromycin. Regularly touched surfaces, such as hospital ward beds and door handles, are potential sources of nosocomial infections. These sites increase the contamination risk among susceptible hosts [23].

In the current investigation, 60 hospital ward beds and door handles were swabbed, and bacterial pathogens including S. aureus, C. perfringens, K. pneumoniae, Clostridium spp., and Bacillus spp. were detected. Also, C. perfringens and Clostridium spp. were relatively new bacterial isolates from door handles and beds in hospital wards reported in the current study. This finding suggests poor hygienic practices by patients or health professionals before and after visiting the hospital toilets. C. perfringens is a spore-forming bacterium that is widely distributed in the environment and frequently occurs in the intestines of humans. Moreover, the spores of the bacterium are found in areas subject to human fecal pollution. Our result is in support of studies by Saadi and colleagues in Algeria and Tagoe et al. in Ghana, which reported S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, and Bacillus spp., among other bacterial species, isolated from patient beds and door handles in hospital wards [14,24]. Furthermore, similar bacterial isolates were detected on beds and door handles in Morocco and Nigeria [16,25]. On the contrary, our evidence is inconsistent with studies conducted in Ethiopia and Ukraine, which reported S. aureus as the only similar bacterial isolate [11,26]. Also, a contradictory finding was reported by a study in Cameroon, which showed that K. pneumoniae, E. cloacae, and P. aeruginosa are dominant bacterial contaminants on beds and door handles of hospital wards [27]. This disparity may be due to different sampling times, sampling techniques, culture methodologies, and hospital wards.

S. aureus constitutes part of the normal human flora, inhabiting the skin and mucous membranes, and is regularly shed into the hospital environment by patients and medical personnel. Taken together, S. aureus 21 (35%) was the most dominant bacterial contaminant in the current study. Staphylococci pathogens are dominant on surfaces because they can express adhesion factors and fatty acid-modifying enzymes for biofilm formation and modify anti-bacterial lipids, thereby increasing their survival for months on arid surfaces [14]. The elevated prevalence of S. aureus might be due to its resistance to the dry conditions of the hospital environment and transmission from the skin, nostrils, and boils of healthcare workers and patients [11]. Our report is following results from Algeria, Southwest Ethiopia, and Morocco [14-16]. However, Firesbhat et al. in Northwest Ethiopia and Barma and co-investigators in Nigeria found CoNS to be the most dominant bacterial contaminant on beds and door handles inwards [13,25]. Additionally, Ebongue et al., at a reference hospital in Douala, Cameroon, interestingly found E. cloacae as the predominant bacterial pathogen [27]. This variation could be due to differences in the hygienic conditions of study participants, the ventilation system, the frequency of surface decontamination, and the disinfection technique.

We most frequently detected S. aureus 17 (42.5%) from beds of hospital wards, and this finding is consistent with reports from Algeria, Southwest Ethiopia, Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, Southern Ethiopia, and Morocco [11,14-16,28]. Conversely, our evidence does not tie in with studies conducted in Northwest Ethiopia, Hawassa University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital of Ethiopia, a Douala reference hospital in Cameroon, and the University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital in Nigeria [13,17,25,27]. C. perfringens 7 (35%) was the most dominant bacterial contaminant on door handles in this study. However, contradictory results have been reported by studies carried out in Nigeria, Cameroon, Northwest Ethiopia, Algeria, Southwest Ethiopia, Southern Ethiopia, and Morocco [11,13-16,25,27]. Moreover, the disparity in results could be due to undercooking of food, wrong food storage, and poor hygienic practices (before and after every toilet visit) of health personnel and patients in this study.

The majority of the isolates of S. aureus in our study was susceptible to gentamycin 20 (95.2%) and azithromycin 20 (95.2%), followed by ampicillin 9 (42.9%), and chloramphenicol 8 (38.1%). On the other hand, Worku et al. in Southwest Ethiopia discovered that 11 (57.8%) of S. aureus was sensitive to ciprofloxacin, 6 (31.6%) to gentamycin, 5 (26.3%) to cefoxitin, and 5 (26.3%) to amoxicillin [15]. Also, Firesbhat et al. study in Northwest Ethiopia showed that ciprofloxacin was the most active (9 (60%)) agent against S. aureus, followed by cotrimoxazole 8 (53.3%) and gentamycin 8 (53.3%) [13]. Sebre et al. at the Tikur Anbessa Specialized Teaching Hospital in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, reported S. aureus sensitivity rates of 55 (88.7%), 53 (84.1%), and 51 (81%) for clindamycin, gentamycin, and ciprofloxacin, respectively [28]. This difference in antimicrobial susceptibility among bacteria might be due to different general mechanisms of resistance, notably the study setting.

C. perfringes were most sensitive to gentamycin 6 (75%) and chloramphenicol 6 (75%). Gentamycin creates fissures in the outer membranes of gram-negative aerobic bacteria, leading to cell leakage and energy-mediated gentamycin uptake [29]. Therefore, gentamycin is less active against gram-positive anaerobes, including C. perfringes. Nevertheless, gentamycin was highly active against C. perfringes in this investigation. This may be because of the enhanced sensitivity (collateral sensitivity) of C. perfringes to gentamycin due to mutations causing multidrug resistance in C. perfringes [30]. Our research is nearly in agreement with an Iranian study performed among patients and healthy individuals at the Imam Reza Educational and Medical Center, which found that ceftriaxone 77 (97.46%) and chloramphenicol 75 (94.93%) were the most active antimicrobials against C. perfringes isolated from stool samples of diarrhea and non-diarrhea patients [31]. Our result is also nearly similar to another study conducted in South Africa, which showed that C. perfringes isolated from patients with suspected mixed aerobic/anaerobic infections were highly sensitive to chloramphenicol (100%), ertapenem (97.2%), and piperacillin-tazobactam (99.4%) [32]. Camacho et al. in Costa Rica reported a corroborating finding that demonstrated that cefotaxime, chloramphenicol, and imipenem were highly active agents against C. perfringes isolated from fecal samples of patients diagnosed with antibiotic-associated diarrhea [33].

Studies conducted in France, Southeastern Hungary, and Iraq have revealed contrary antibiotic sensitivity rates: (tigecyclin 86.5% and clindamycin 59.5%), (amoxicillin/clavulanic acid 100%, cefoxitin 100%, meropenem 100%, imipenem 100%, and metronidazole 100%), and (penicllins and -lactamase inhibitors, metronidazole, and aminoglycosides), respectively, of C. perfringes isolated from wounds of patients or fecal samples of neonates [34-36]. These discrepancies in antibiotic-sensitivity profiles might be attributed to inappropriate administration of antimicrobials or variations in hospital environmental conditions, self-medication practices, and personal hygiene. Strength and Limitations

To our knowledge, this is the first study that has reported C. perfringes and Clostridium spp. from beds and door handles in hospital wards. Secondly, we found that C. perfringes is the most dominant bacterial pathogen on ward door handles. Thirdly, gentamycin was identified as an active agent against C. perfringes, in addition to chloramphenicol, which is an already-established antibiotic against C. perfringes. Lastly, C. perfringes was resistant to cephalothin.

Study limitations: the number of hospitals included in this study was small, which led to a limited sample size. Moreover, only seven different antibiotic discs were used to determine the antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial isolates. Therefore, the generalizability of our findings may be affected. Furthermore, Clostridium spp. other than C. perfringes could not be isolated in this study because of limited laboratory resources for laboratory analysis.

 

 

Conclusion Up    Down

S. aureus and Bacillus spp. had the highest contamination rates on beds and door handles in hospital wards. C. perfringes is the most common bacterial contaminant on door handles, while S. aureus is most commonly isolated from patient beds. S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, Bacillus spp., and Clostridium spp. showed the highest sensitivity to gentamycin. These isolates, except K. pneumoniae, were multi-drug resistant and most resistant to bacitracin. Food safety measures should be strictly followed in hospitals to prevent or manage outbreaks of foodborne diseases. Hospital beds and door handles should be regularly and adequately disinfected and cleaned. Hand hygiene should be routinely practiced by patients and healthcare workers through hand washing or the provision and use of hand sanitizers.

What is known about this topic

  • S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Enterobacter, CoNS, Staphylococcus saprophticus, Klebsiella spp., CoNS, and Acinetobacter baumannii are found on beds and door handles of hospital wards;
  • S. aureus is most dominant on patient beds in hospital wards;
  • S. aureus is sensitive to gentamycin, ampicillin, and ciprofloxacin.

What this study adds

  • Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium spp. also colonize wards’ beds and door handles;
  • Door handles in hospital wards are most frequently contaminated with C. perfringens;
  • Gentamycin is an active agent against C. perfringens.

 

 

Competing interests Up    Down

The authors declare no competing interests.

 

 

Authors' contributions Up    Down

Njeodo Njongang Vigny: writing-original draft (lead); formal analysis (lead); writing-review and editing (equal). Binwie Fanuella Shu: conceptualization (lead); writing-review and editing (equal). All the authors have read and approved the manuscript for submission.

 

 

Acknowledgments Up    Down

The authors appreciate the contributions made by the Chief Medical Officer and laboratory staff at Regina Pacis Hospital, Private Medical Insurance (PMI) Hospital, COMWEL Clinic, and Tiko District Hospital. We are also grateful for the collaboration of ward heads in these hospitals.

 

 

Table and figures Up    Down

Table 1: antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of bacteria isolated from hospital ward beds and door handles in the Tiko health district

Figure 1: frequencies of bacterial isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko health district

Figure 2: frequencies of bacterial isolates from hospitals based on ward surface

Figure 3: frequencies of bacterial isolates from wards´ beds and door handles based on hospital

 

 

References Up    Down

  1. Nouetchognou JS, Ateudjieu J, Jemea B, Mesumbe EN, Mbanya D. Surveillance of nosocomial infections in the Yaounde University Teaching Hospital, Cameroon. BMC Res Notes. 2016 Dec 8;9(1):505. PubMed | Google Scholar

  2. Doshi RK, Patel G, MacKay R, Wallach F. Healthcare-associated infections: Epidemiology, prevention, and therapy. Mt Sinai J Med. 2009 Feb;76(1):84-94. PubMed | Google Scholar

  3. Voidazan S, Albu S, Toth R, Grigorescu B, Rachita A, Moldovan I. Healthcare associated infections-a new pathology in medical practice? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Jan 25;17(3):760. PubMed | Google Scholar

  4. Saka KH, Akanbi AA, Obasa TO, Raheem RA, Oshodi AJ. Bacterial contamination of hospital surfaces according to material make, last time of contact and last time of cleaning/disinfection. J Bacteriol Parasitol. 2017 Aug 7;8(03):8-11. Google Scholar

  5. Bouba G, Pohimi H, Nelly-Michele G. Prevalence of Nosocomial Infections within the Regional Hospital of Garoua. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2016 Dec; 11(6):13-20.

  6. Kesah NF, Vincent KP, Chrysanthus N. Healthcareassociated infections in three hospitals in Dschang, West Region, Cameroon. Ann Trop Med Public Health. 2013 Jan 1;6(1):23-9. Google Scholar

  7. Szabó S, Feier B, Capatina D, Tertis M, Cristea C, Popa A. An overview of healthcare associated infections and their detection methods caused by pathogen bacteria in Romania and Europe. J Clin Med. 2022 Jun 4;11(11):3204. PubMed | Google Scholar

  8. Raoofi S, Pashazadeh Kan F, Rafiei S, Hosseinipalangi Z, Noorani Mejareh Z, Khani S et al. Global prevalence of nosocomial infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2023 Jan 27;18(1):e0274248. PubMed | Google Scholar

  9. Abubakar U, Amir O, Rodríguez-Baño J. Healthcare-associated infections in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis of point prevalence studies. J of Pharm Policy and Pract. J Pharm Policy Pract. 2022 Dec 9;15(1):99. PubMed | Google Scholar

  10. Saba CK, Amenyona JK, Kpordze SW. Prevalence and pattern of antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from door handles and other points of contact in public hospitals in Ghana. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2017 May 10;6:44. PubMed | Google Scholar

  11. Madebo C, Haile A, Eticha T, Solomon F. Hospital-Based Air-Borne and Surface-Borne Bacterial Pathogens and Their Antimicrobial Profiles in Wolaita Sodo, Southern Ethiopia. Int J Microbiol. 2022 Oct 31;2022:5718341. PubMed | Google Scholar

  12. Bhatta DR, Hamal D, Shrestha R, Subramanya SH, Baral N, Singh RK et al. Bacterial contamination of frequently touched objects in a tertiary care hospital of Pokhara, Nepal: how safe are our hands. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2018 Aug 6;7:97. PubMed | Google Scholar

  13. Firesbhat A, Tigabu A, Tegene B, Gelaw B. Bacterial profile of high-touch surfaces, leftover drugs and antiseptics together with their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns at University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol. 2021 Nov 8;21(1):309. PubMed | Google Scholar

  14. Saadi S, Allem R, Sebaihia M, Merouane A, Bakkali M. Bacterial contamination of neglected hospital surfaces and equipment in an Algerian hospital: An important source of potential infection. Int J Environ Health Res. 2022 Jun;32(6):1373-1381. PubMed | Google Scholar

  15. Worku T, Derseh D, Kumalo A. Bacterial profile and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of the isolates from stethoscope, thermometer, and inanimate surfaces of Mizan-Tepi University Teaching Hospital, Southwest Ethiopia. Int J Microbiol. 2018 Jun 27;2018:9824251. PubMed | Google Scholar

  16. Chaoui L, Mhand R, Mellouki F, Rhallabi N. Contamination of the surfaces of a health care environment by multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Int J Microbiol. 2019 Nov 29;2019:3236526. PubMed | Google Scholar

  17. Bitew K, Gidebo DD, Ali MM. Bacterial contamination rates and drug susceptibility patterns of bacteria recovered from medical equipment, inanimate surfaces, and indoor air of a neonatal intensive care unit and pediatric ward at Hawassa University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia. IJID Reg. 2021 Sep 26;1:27-33. PubMed | Google Scholar

  18. Gonsu KH, Guenou E, Toukam M, Ndze VN, Mbakop CD, Tankeu DN et al. Bacteriological assessment of the hospital environment in two referral hospitals in Yaoundé-Cameroon. Pan Afr Med J. 2015 Mar 12;20:224. PubMed | Google Scholar

  19. Fru PN, Cho FN, Tassang AN, Fru CN, Fon PN, Ekobo AS. Ownership and Utilisation of Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets in Tiko Health District, Southwest Region, Cameroon: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Parasitol Res. 2021 Feb 2;2021:8848091. PubMed | Google Scholar

  20. Tassang AN, Nana NT, Assop CN, Thierry T, CJ N, Paulette NF, Nchang CF. Early appraisal of option B+ in Tiko Health District-Cameroon. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management. 2020;8(8):396-402.

  21. Ndassi VD, Anchang-Kimbi JK, Sumbele IU, Ngufor LA, Nadege K, Kimbi HK. The epidemiological status of urogenital schistosomiasis among reproductive aged individuals in the Tiko Health Area-a semi-urban setting in the Mount Cameroon area. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2021 Jan 11;15(1):e0008978. PubMed | Google Scholar

  22. Cheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2. Cambridge university press; 2006 Mar 2. Google Scholar

  23. Zaib H, Kanwar R, Zafar N, Ali S. Prevalence and multidrug resistance profiles of several bacterial pathogens isolated from hospital inanimate surfaces in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Nov Res Microbiol J. 2019 Dec 1;3(6):526-34. Google Scholar

  24. Tagoe DN, Desbordes KK. Investigating potential sources of transmission of healthcare-associated infections in a regional hospital, Ghana. Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2012 Jan;2(1):20-4. PubMed | Google Scholar

  25. Barma MM, Nasir IA, Babayo A. Bacterial pathogens and their antibiotic susceptibility pattern in Intensive Care Units of the University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospital, Nigeria. J Med Trop. 2017 Jan 1;19(1):16. Google Scholar

  26. Salmanov AG, Shchehlov DV, Svyrydiuk O, Mamonova M, Krylova AS, Gudym MS. Evaluation of bacterial contamination in the inanimate environment surfaces in acute care hospitals in Kyiv, Ukraine. Wiad Lek. 2022;75(2):483-489. PubMed | Google Scholar

  27. Ebongue CO, Nguatcheussi CM, Mefo´o JP, Bollanga J, Adiogo D, Luma HN. Microbial Ecology and Antibiotic Susceptibility Profile of Germs Isolated from Hospital Surfaces and Medical Devices in a Reference Hospital in Douala (Cameroon). Adv Appl Microbiol. 2018 Feb 28;8(02):125. Google Scholar

  28. Sebre S, Abegaz WE, Seman A, Awoke T, Desalegn Z, Mihret W, Mihret A, Abebe T. Bacterial profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from inanimate hospital environments at Tikur Anbessa specialized teaching hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Infect Drug Resist. 2020 Dec 14;13:4439-4448. PubMed | Google Scholar

  29. Gonzalez III LS, Spencer JP. Aminoglycosides: a practical review. Am Fam Physician. 1998 Nov 15;58(8):1811-20. PubMed | Google Scholar

  30. Pál C, Papp B, Lázár V. Collateral sensitivity of antibiotic-resistant microbes. Trends Microbiol. 2015 Jul;23(7):401-7. PubMed | Google Scholar

  31. Akhi MT, Asl SB, Pirzadeh T, Naghili B, Yeganeh F, Memar Y et al. Antibiotic sensitivity of Clostridium perfringens isolated from faeces in Tabriz, Iran. Jundishapur J Microbiol. 2015 Jul 25;8(7):e20863. PubMed | Google Scholar

  32. Naidoo S, Perovic O, Richards GA, Duse AG. Clinically significant anaerobic bacteria isolated from patients in a South African academic hospital: Antimicrobial susceptibility testing. S Afr Med J. 2011 Sep 27;101(10):732-734. PubMed | Google Scholar

  33. Camacho N, Espinoza C, Rodríguez C, Rodríguez E. Isolates of Clostridium perfringens recovered from Costa Rican patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhoea are mostly enterotoxin-negative and susceptible to first-choice antimicrobials. J Med Microbiol. 2008 Mar;57(Pt 3):343-347. PubMed | Google Scholar

  34. Hmood AM, Al-Shukri MS, Al-Charrakh AH. Molecular detection and antimicrobial resistance of Clostridium perfringens isolated from diabetic patients and bullet wounds. J Appl Biol Biotechnol. 2019 Jan 20;7(1):54-9. Google Scholar

  35. Sárvári KP, Schoblocher D. The antibiotic susceptibility pattern of gas gangrene-forming Clostridium spp. clinical isolates from South-Eastern Hungary. Infect Dis (Lond). 2020 Mar;52(3):196-201. PubMed | Google Scholar

  36. Ferraris L, Butel MJ, Campeotto F, Vodovar M, Rozé JC, Aires J. Clostridia in premature neonates' gut: incidence, antibiotic susceptibility, and perinatal determinants influencing colonization. PLoS One. 2012;7(1):e30594. PubMed | Google Scholar

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Search

Volume 49 (Sep - Dec 2024)

This article authors

On Pubmed
On Google Scholar

Citation [Download]

Zotero
EndNote XML
Reference Manager
BibTex
ProCite

Navigate this article

Similar articles in

Key words

Article metrics

Countries of access

PlumX Metrics

Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon

Recently from the PAMJ

Exposure to cooking emissions in kitchens and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in women: a population-based case-control study in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Risk factors for rifampicin resistance tuberculosis among patients attending Directly Observed Treatments Centres in Southwestern Nigeria

Family caregiver related factors contributing to role strain among adult patients with cancer at a National Referral Hospital in Kenya: cross-sectional study

Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon

Chronic complications of type 2 diabetes and associated factors: a cross-sectional study at the Moulay Hassan Hospital in Kenitra, Morocco

Correlates of retinopathy in persons living with type 2 diabetes at a clinic in Zambia

Authors´ services